Vocabulary:

• cuneiform: a word derived from Latin that means “wedge-shaped.” This term was created in the 19th century by scholars. Languages written using cuneiform include Sumerian and Akkadian.
• relief: an item that contains three-dimensional elements carved into a flat surface that are thus raised. 
• scribe: a person who has learned how to read and write.
• seal: a portable form of relief that is rolled or stamped onto a soft substance, such as clay, to create an image
• symbol: something that represents something else



Note: We also want to acknowledge that the term “Ancient Near East” is often used to describe the specific area found on the map below, but this term is based on Eurocentric perspectives of geography. Thus, you may see this term being used elsewhere, especially other texts, but we want to avoid using this term.

A map of the region of Mesopotamia.

We will start our lesson by discussing Assyria, an early empire centered along the Tigris River in Mesopotamia, roughly in present-day Iraq. During the height of the Assyrian Empire, from the 7th to the 9th Centuries BCE, its borders included several present-day countries, such as Egypt and Iran. 

In early Mesopotamia, people spoke many languages, including Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian. Cuneiform, an early writing system invented around 3200 BCE, was first developed to write Sumerian and Akkadian and later adapted for other languages spoken in Mesopotamia. Cuneiform is a notational writing system that uses a given set of symbols to represent whole words or sounds. Scribes that spoke the languages of early Mesopotamia learned the many cuneiform symbols to communicate beyond the spoken word. 

Cuneiform has a long history of use, and its symbols evolved as each generation modified the script's characters. Some of the earliest uses of cuneiform were written on clay tablets and used to keep track of rations, taxes, and other material concerns. In its later stages, cuneiform was written in wedge-like shapes using an angled reed pressed onto soft clay. Often read left to right, cuneiform was used by early scribes not only to keep track of materials but to develop myths, letters, astronomical tables, and even legal documents. 

At LACMA, we have objects and panels from Mesopotamia with cuneiform script. A great example is the following wall reliefs, where the cuneiform is written in a rectangular form in the center of these reliefs. These reliefs are part of a series of five wall reliefs at LACMA that were once on the walls of Ashurnasirpal II’s palace in Kalakh. The writing in these reliefs describes the rule, his prayer, and his role in founding Kalakh.

Beyond the text in these reliefs, the images also communicate ideas visually. This image shows Ashurnasirpal II on the right with a winged figure on the left. Rulers are often idealized in images, presenting them as good leaders. Ashurnasirpal II is shown wearing a headdress, a beard, and long clothing. These large reliefs in LACMA’s collection were meant to show the king’s strength; he was shown as a hunter or even a servant of the gods. The community understood these symbols as signs of rulership. These reliefs are a clear example of how image and text complement each other to communicate a message! Can you think of other examples where people communicated messages using images and text?

Ashurnasirpal II and a Winged Deity, Northern Iraq, Nimrud, 9th century B.C., Sculpture, Gypseous alabaster, 97 1/2 × 84 1/2 × 5 1/2 in. (247.65 × 214.63 × 13.97 cm) Weight: 1 Ton 1902 lb. (1769.9 kg) Mount: 12 × 84 × 18 1/4 in. (30.48 × 213.36 × 46.36 cm), Purchased with funds provided by Anna Bing Arnold (66.4.3), Art of the Middle East: Ancient

Eagle-Headed Deity, Northern Iraq, Nimrud, Neo-Assyrian Period (9th century B.C.), Sculpture, Gypseous alabaster, 99 1/4 × 71 1/2 × 6 in. (252.1 × 181.61 × 15.24 cm) Weight: 1 Ton 1500 lb. (1587.6 kg) Mount: 12 × 72 × 18 in. (30.48 × 182.88 × 45.72 cm), Gift of Anna Bing Arnold (66.4.4), Art of the Middle East: Ancient

Let’s compare these two reliefs. Describe the actions of the figures in each of these sculptures. How are they the same; how are they different? 

Beyond panels and reliefs with text and imagery, Assyrians also used seals to communicate. They often made and used cylinder seals, such as this one: 

Cylinder Seal, Mesopotamia, Agade period, about 2334-2154 BCE, Black serpentine, Height: 1 5/16 in. (3.2 cm); Diameter: 7/8 in. (2.2 cm), Gift of Nasli M. Heeramaneck (M.76.174.354)

Cylinder seals are tube-shaped and are made of more durable materials, such as marble. These seals would have been rolled, leaving an imprint of the carved design on the surface of an object. These seals would be rolled onto a softer surface, mostly clay, to make it easier for the image to remain on this surface.

Assyrians and other communities of Mesopotamia also created and used other seals that were meant to be stamped (similar to rubber stamps used today), such as this seal:

Stamp Seal, Hammer Shaped, Assyria or Mesopotamia, 8th-7th century B.C., Tools and Equipment; seals, Jasper breccia, Height: 7/8 in. (2.1 cm); Width: 1/2 in. (1.2 cm); Length: 5/8 in. (1.57 cm), Gift of Nasli M. Heeramaneck (M.76.174.575), Art of the Middle East: Ancient

Seals could be used almost like a signature because they were unique to the owner. They were often used to mark or close documents. They could also contain important information for the recipient to note, such as the job of the person who created the seal.

How would you describe the types of lines in this seal? What do you think they could be used to represent?

Early World Cultures programs are made possible by a generous grant from the Max H. Gluck Foundation.